Biodegradable Plastics Essay Example for Free

Biodegradable Plastics Essay The properties of plastics are determined by the polymers that constitute the unit. Based on this, plastics can be modified into biodegradable products by varying the constituents synthetically. Their chemical structures vary due to the substituting polyesters in the polymer chain. Let’s study about the chemical differences and structure of green plastics; PHA and PLA. Amylose and Amylopectin are the major polymer components of starch. In the link structure, all identical chain points are connected to –CH2OH group. The oxygen in the ring structure chain facilitates degradation when reacted with water. Any hybrid variety can be produced with two components: renewable natural polymer (starch) and petroleum based synthetic polymer (PCL). †¢ Polylactide (PLA) is a bioplastic basically made from starch, the basic building material. Here lactic acid (CH3CHOHCOOH) is produced through fermentation where microorganisms convert sugar feedstock into lactic acid. The lactic acid thus isolated is depolymerized to lactide and by Ring-opening polymerization with catalysts it is converted into Polylactide polymer of high molecular weight. Based on the particle size, the rate of biodegradability and transparency varies. They find use in soluble fibers, compose bags and renewable products. †¢ Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) polymers are produced naturally by microorganisms directly from sugar feedstock. The polymer is isolated, purified and processed. These components can be controlled by varying the ratio of sugar feedstock. Synthesized PHA is copolyester composed of 3-hydroxy fatty acids hydroxybuterate, hydroxyvalerate and hydroxyhexanoate. In all PHAs the hydroxyl substituted carbon atom is steriochemical -R configuration. Since they are composed of short chain and long chain length –R groups, they are used for a variety of commercial applications. References Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2007, Pp 1437-1449 Stevens, E. S. , Green Plastics: An introduction to the New Science of Biodegradable Plastics, Princeton University Press, 2003 Biodegradable Plastics. (2016, Oct 08).

The Origin and Significance of European Sovereign Debt Crisis Essay

The Origin and Significance of European Sovereign Debt Crisis - Essay Example Indeed, despite Germany being at the centre of the origin of the European debt crisis, there were other players who had the authority to save the euro member countries from plunging into this crisis. Introduction Manolopoulos (2011) refers to the European sovereign debt crisis as a financial crisis which has caused some Eurozone countries to have difficulties in refinancing respective government debts unless a third party intervenes. The decade preceding 2009 saw the Eurozone achieve much success economically with the European Central Bank, ECB achieving its policy objectives. The inflation was maintained at low with an almost equilibrium GDP. The use of a single currency reduced the cost of transactions with the greatest effect being on territories of countries where financial interactions were intense. Nonetheless, Grahl (2011) noted that with a single currency, member countries lose control of their currencies. As such, the exchange rate becomes fixed and in times of competitiveness problems, the country would not devalue or allow depreciation of its currency. During the crisis of the sovereign debt crisis, Britain was cushioned against this because of not being a member of the Eurozone. Secondly, these countries lose the control of domestic interest rates which influence investment and consumption effectively affecting the economy. It would only be beneficial if the member economies move at par. But with discrepancies, with others in recession while others face inflation, this becomes costly. The average good performance of the Eurozone hid some of these misgivings and individual performances of these countries. For instance, countries negatively affected by the Eurozone debt crisis had inflation rates of above 2% despite the average inflation of the Germany, the largest economy in the Eurozone being always being lower than 2% (Grahl 2011). While Germany had gradual growth, the other countries had domestic booms and entered into debt crisis with Greece being the first casualty followed by Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy in that order, with their account deficits being traced back to 1999. These countries borrowed for their domestic financing from abroad such as the housing developments in Spain and Ireland and government spending in Italy financed by German household savings. These financing was given when these countries were unable to service these debts in the long run. Instead of financing human capital and productive projects that would lead to higher future returns, the investments were on public and private consumption and on wasteful construction projects. According to Conquest (2011), financial crises resulting from housing booms would normally lead to sovereign debt crisis. Grahl (2011) further argues that sovereign debt crisis would be further propelled by fears of government’s insolvency as it would fail to pay capital and interest on its bonds. Eventually, capital markets get closed and the governments forced to default. The local currency would then depreciate followed by

Any work of art in Baltimore Museum of Art or Walter's Museum Research Paper

Any work of art in Baltimore Museum of Art or Walter's Museum - Research Paper Example The artist here worked skillfully to make the viewer share these feelings. The artist was inspired by the work and ideologies of modern theologians, who implored the faithful to recognize with Christ in his torment. This painting was intended to point to Christ’s torment by depicting him hanging greatly with bowed head and bleeding wounds. A swarm of other statures forms the backdrop of the cross, and they are frequently notable for their expressiveness. From the artwork, the Virgin Mary weeps piteously in the foreground. Other hosts of statures are in oriental dress just gaze at Christ as if he has somewhat enthused them. These figures reflect a shift from style, but it also permeates the scene with enhanced reality, which in effect makes the episode more available to virtuous rumination (MacArthur 12-25). In this German art, episodes from the Passion have made the concentration of greater independent picture. This approach by the artist bought new probabilities for artists a s well as virtuous viewers. The artist seems to have been influenced by the spirit of Transformation, which is why he worked deftly to involve the emotions in meditation of Christ’s suffering and death. His painting dispenses with details of tales and environment and so compels the observer into undeviating engagement with the body of Christ. He has achieved this by showing Christ’s suffering with categorical realism at close proximity to the observer. â€Å"His style is nothing but a striking demonstration of the potency of artistic custom in the service of expressive effect.†2 The compacted configuration and superlative costumes of the statures both demonstrate the artist’s experience and emphasize the scenes reality (MacArthur 25-28). The Catholic Church reconfirmed the value of images in Christian devotion and the significance of the emotions in religious experience. These judgments warranted that the Church would persist to stimulate commissions for Italian painters, and that the life of Christ would retain its significance in art. Many paintings of the passion of Christ were commissioned for a Church. The body of Christ hanging on the wooden cross pertains to the image of a powerless, undressed tormented man, and many observers of the artwork recognize the culture of crucifixion. The nuisance of Christ’s crucifixion tale on the artwork is somewhat a type of defacement, which is, engraving a sophisticated narrative of sin and consecration onto the body of someone powerless, converting the maimed body of another into a symbol. The painter has used figures and environments in a life-like manner to make the scenes appear existent and the message convincing. Christ is the innermost stature in the painting. The painter has adroitly utilized the symbols and tales of Christianity to narrate the happening in the artwork, shaping how the violence is viewed and understood. â€Å"Christ’s crucifixion endeavors to make conse quential the suffering of another, but still stimulates another desecration.†3 Superimposing a Christian tale on a worshipper’s suffering to provide that suffering meaning in terms of the individuals causing that suffering thinks a narrative of triumph, salvation, where there is none

Review of Research Paper on RNA in Mammalian Cells -- Biology

Review of Research Paper: Duplexes of 21-nucleotide RNAs mediate RNA interference in cultured mammalian cells Overview The significance of this experiment is that it shows how siRNA suppresses the expression of genes in different mammalian cells. It was known previous to the experiment that dsRNA can trigger apoptosis in cells- this is an automatic defense mechanism that mammalian cells use to protect against the dsRNA possessed by viruses. The dsRNA can cause RNA interference when it is taken into the cell by a transgene or a virus. The dsRNA is then cleaved by ribonuclease III enzyme into 21-22 nucleotide siRNA's. The siRNA's joins a nuclease complex to form an RNA-induced silencing complex. This complex then cleaves and degrades mRNA. The question was, could transfecting the cell directly with siRNA produce RNA interference? This experiment was performed to test whether siRNA's are capable of RNAi in mammalian cell cultures. (The idea to test gene silencing on mammalian cells sparked from a petunia-darkening experiment.) To do this they synthesized siRNA duplexes against genes that coded for sea pansies and two variants of firefly luciferases. Luciferase is used because it emits light so it's easy to see if the genes are turned on or off, and by what degree. The luciferase activities were recorded 20 hours after transfection and it was seen that the specific inhibition of luciferase was complete, which is similar to the results obtained for dsRNA. In mammalian cells where the reporter genes were more strongly expressed, the ability of the siRNA to completely suppress the gene was reduced. Background Information So, what's with all these petunia flowers anyways? Gene Suppression Within Plants Plant scientists ... ...nderstanding of the significance of genes. Primarily, by silencing a given gene of the genome using a transfected siRNA, geneticists can quantifiably study the properties of the gene and the allele it encodes. This knowledge can then be applied to the pharmaceutical industry to identify "druggable" gene targets. Plants RNAi can be used for multiple purposes in plants. Among the most notable, it can be used to control insect viral vectors and improve the tolerance to pests and stress so that crops do not need to be destroyed regularly by insecticides. It can also cure plants by potentially eliminating toxins and allergens. Finally, RNAi employment can create perfection by extending flowering and fruit setting periods. References Duplexes of 21-nucleotide RNAs mediate RNA interference in cultured mammalian cells published in Nature (Vol. 411, 24 May 2001).

A Reaction to the Article, “The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind” by Gustave Le Bon

I resolutely concur with Gustave Le Bon’s LAW OF THE MENTAL UNITY OF CROWDS, which is indeed a socio-psychological phenomenon manifested throughout history and continues to manifest in our day-to-day lives. We are social beings. That makes this law almost absolute that to exclude oneself from it would mean excluding oneself from the rest of society and humanity, or one’s community to be more specific.Le Bon’s multifaceted analysis on the psychological crowd gave me the feeling of referring to it as a community. As he spoke of â€Å"collectiveness†, I remembered â€Å"sharing.† His discussion on the â€Å"individual comprising the crowd† reminded me of â€Å"group membership.† When he spoke of â€Å"contagion† I thought of â€Å"shared expectations and common goals.†His â€Å"influence and suggestion,† are â€Å"motives and issues† to me in relation to community. Most importantly, his statement of individuals being equals regardless of intellect and social status is â€Å"democracy.†   These heightened my belief of the law as I became more comfortable in relating his claims to everyday life.What is more convincing with the article is that it was written in a realistic and practical approach. Le Bon didn’t dwell idealistically in his concept of the psychological crowd, like me in my understanding of a community.Diversity, conflict, and factions in thinking are certainly inevitable and are always threats to harmony and homogeny. More so, the bottom line of every crowd or community’s dynamics is the motives, commitment, and gains of its members.Like Gustave’s discussion on the psychological crowd’s dynamics of having the individuals conscious and independent ways of thinking dissolved in a crowd, my understanding of a community is that it is composed of people who transmit knowledge through sharing rather than individually inheriting traits and characte ristics from their parents.Undeniably, this law had been formulated through in-depth observation of the dynamics of historical events and processes. It shall never cease to support the existence of social, cultural, political, and economic entities, that is all the advances as well as the setbacks human development has brought to us.ALL religions, ALL laws, ALL business establishments and policies, ALL family systems, ALL academic institutions, ALL forms technology, ALL sciences, ALL wars and conflicts, etc. are all products of MENTAL UNITY OF CROWDS. As long as people converge to work on something, as long as they exist and need each other, this law shall be valid.If Sociology is the study of human social behavior, origins, institutions, organization, and the development of human society, then Le Bon’s Law would be the very much essential to justifying the existence of the science (Sociology).It effectively presents a powerful phenomenon that explains the process of the simp le individual being the foundation of a more complex crowd, which tells us so much about social relationships and behaviors, and organizational processes. Thus, it is able to profoundly provide us a base of what we are actually studying every day in this course.

Rugby World Cup 2015 Essay Example for College Students - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2454 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Economics Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Introduction Despite widespread publication of a positive economic impact resulting from the Rugby World Cup in 2015, issues such as overspending, forecasting accuracy, and the focus of the reporting itself, suggests there are also factors which may materially reduce the overall impact. Because of this, it is possible the widely publicised outlook for this event is overly optimistic. This report will critically analyse the direct, indirect and induced economic impact of the Rugby World Cup 2015 for England. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Rugby World Cup 2015 Essay Example for College Students" essay for you Create order Beginning with a summary of the economic impact, issues will then be examined with reference to the stated impacts, relevant literature, and comparable events around the world such as previous Rugby World Cups. The analysis concludes that the economic impact of the 2015 Rugby World Cup, while sizeable, may not be as significant as predicted. Summary of Economic Impacts A report by Ernst Young forecasts a number of economic benefits to the 2015 Rugby World Cup, including over $2 million in economic output, and a direct boost to GDP of $463 million (Arnold and Grice, 2015; summarised in Table 1). Media promoting these benefits is widespread, with the Ernst Young report often cited to describe and support the positive impacts of the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The many media examples include Bergson (2015), Menary (2015), and Wilson (2015). Due to the credibility of the financial services firm Ernst Young (Aubin, 2012), as well as the wide-spread publication of these results, the economic impact by Arnold and Grice (2015) will be used as the basis for this analysis, as summarised in Table 1. Contribution Type Impact Category Impact Source Amount (millions) Output Direct Visitor Spend Ticket revenue (international) Infrastructure investment Fanzone spend Stadia spend $869 $68 $85 $5 $13 Indirect and induced $1,165 GDP Direct Visitor spend Ticket revenue (international) Infrastructure contribution Fanzone spend Stadia contribution $391 $29 $35 $2 $6 Indirect and induced $518 Table 1. Summarised from Arnold and Grice (2015, pp18-20) For the purpose of this analysis, direct impact is considered to be initial spending stimulus arising from the event, including infrastructure expenditure and ticket revenue. Indirect economic impacts result from transactions that occur as a result of the initial spending, such as additional tourism expenditure in other areas. Induced impacts are the result of increased consumer spending due to higher income, such as greater support for sports and health overall. These definitions are outlined by Saayman and Saayman (2012, p223) and are consistent with the examples provided in the report by Arnold and Grice (2015). Support and improvements for the Forecasted Economic Impact Financial Stimulus The publicity of a major sporting event is said to improve the local brand overall, resulting in additional foreign investment, including business and tourism. While arguably temporary, this publicity can stimulate activity during a time of economic slowdown, which in turn creates indirect economic impacts such as increased demand for manufacturing, and induced effects such as higher overall employment, in particular in the hospitality industry (Arnold and Grice, 2015; Statistics New Zealand, 2012). While purely financial transactions are not included as part of GDP increases (McConnell et. al, 2010), some GDP growth may occur on the back of a strong financial market, driven by the Rugby World Cup. Increased publicity for the host country, coupled with high consumer excitement and mass sponsorship exposure may explain why share prices tend to improve during mass sporting events. For example, during the 2013 Wimbledon, the 10 largest listed companies in Scotland experienced a 7.5% increase in share price, while the FTSE100 increased by 5.1% (Thanapathy, 2015). In addition, the first trading week following the announcement of a significant sponsorship agreement saw sponsoring companies in the U.S.A. experience significant share price gains (Harrow and Swatek, 2011). While not mentioned in the report by Arnold and Grice (2015), an induced economic impact to the Rugby World Cup may be increasing investment in additional goods and services, as business confidence increases due to the strong financial market. The Multiplier Effect and Social Good An additional contributor to GDP and output is the result of the multiplier effect, that is, the increase in investment bringing about a disproportionate increase in GDP via spending and re-spending (Saayman and Saayman, 2012; McConnell et. al, 2010). The multiplier effect during an event such as the Rugby World Cup is likely to be significant, not only through increased consumer and business spending, but in areas such as an increased interest in sports, which in turn encourages a higher focus on public health overall. The social benefits of large sporting events are evident in the Comrades Marathon, where induced economic impacts included the benefits of increased income and spending reaching the poor. Saayman and Saayman (2012) note that their findings regarding the social benefits of the Comrades Marathon are consistent with broader literature, which also finds the economic impact of large scale sporting events reaches both rich and poor. Thus the direct impact of increased output and income generated by the Rugby World Cup is likely to increase GDP more than the initial investment, creating indirect and induced impacts via the multiplier effect. Including both Domestic and International spend When measuring economic impact, Arnold and Grice (2015) exclude domestic spend on sporting events because, it is argued, this money would remain in the economy regardless, being spent elsewhere if not on the Rugby World Cup. However, domestic spend may also be relevant as this recreational income could easily be spent in a different economy, were it not for this event (Saayman and Saayman, 2012). Given the proximity of England to European destinations, and the cultural relevance of Soccer in England and Europe (Gibbons, 2014), it is likely that English income would be spent in other countries if the Rugby World Cup was held elsewhere à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" either to another destination for a holiday, or to the country hosting the World Cup. During the 2011 Rugby World Cup in New Zealand, the second most popular tourist origin was direct from the U.K.; a significant number of additional sports tourists from the U.K. arrived via Australia (Statistics New Zealand, 2011). Thus both dome stic and international expenditure on the Rugby World Cup 2015 is significant. Amending visitor and ticket revenue, and revenue derived from food and beverages, to include domestic consumers may be more accurate than focusing solely on additional international income. New Zealand, for example, note an increase in domestic household spending during the Rugby World Cup 2011, driven primarily by food and beverage, in addition to international spend (Statistics New Zealand, 2011). Similar to the Canadian analysis of Sports Tourism, domestic income may be included on a separate line for clarity and completeness (The Outspan Group Inc, 2009). While this may serve to increase forecasted output by increasing overall predicted spend, as discussed under Forecasting Ticket Sales, it is also possible that international spend reduces the economic impact of domestic expenditure in some areas, as the two may net each other out. Limitations and Challenges to the Forecasted Economic Impact The tendency to over-estimate Historically, the economic impacts of sporting events have been overestimated by host countries (Leeds and Von Allmen, 2008; Horrow and Swatek, 2011). For example, the economic impact of the 2002 World Cup fell significantly short of the estimated $31 billion (Leeds and Von Allmen, 2008). While GDP and consumption was affected during the 2011 Rugby World Cup, New Zealand reports that it did not contribute to the New Zealand economy, as measured in the BoP and national accounts (Statistics New Zealand, 2011). The Super Bowl XL publicised an economic impact of $300million on the back of sports tourism exceeding expectations, however figures later released by the Michigan Department of Treasury suggest the actual economic impact was negligible (Horrow and Swatek, 2011). It is thus highly possible that the economic impact for England has been similarly over-estimated. Economic Impact Intention As a general rule, economic impact reports measure total, as opposed to net, activity or income (Saayman and Saayman, 2012), and for this reason may appear overly positive compared to more balanced analyses, such as cost-benefit, where expenditure as well as income is considered. While economic impact is sometimes defined as net benefit (Crompton, 2006 in Saayman and Saayman, 2012), the more widely accepted definition is monetary payments as they move through a regional economy for the purpose of measuring the impact of an event as it relates to that economy (Tyrrrell and Johnston, 2006, p3). While omitting additional costs is technically correct, it can seem misleading in journal articles written for the general public, who may be unaware of these definitions. The article by Menary (2015), for example, presents an unrealistically optimistic view of the financial viability of the Rugby World Cup, as the public is only made aware of gains. Direct economic impacts, such as the $68 million in ticket revenue noted in the report by Arnold and Grice (2015) may return a far lower figure once additional costs such as administration have been taken into account. It is possible that GDP and output will increase by the stated amounts, however for a complete picture, more than the standard economic impact should be considered. Forecasting: Ticket Sales as Incremental Income It is possible that locals would attend the Rugby World Cup in place of tourists, were it not for the influx of football fans (Leeds and Von Allmen, 2008, p233) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" a possibility that nets out the impact of international spend on tickets to some degree, since the international income is replacing local income à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" not adding to it. Further understanding local activity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the propensity to travel and attend local events is therefore vital in understanding the true economic impact of international spending during the Rugby World Cup in 2015. As noted by Saayman and Saayman (2012, p232): in order to increase the economic benefit of the event, expanding both these markets might be worthwhile. Further, one way Arnold and Grice (2015, p8) forecast ticket revenue and consumer interest is by measuring the historic percentage of seats filled during World Cup Events. While these percentages have hovered around 95% for the past two events, it i s not known how many of these tickets were paid for, given away, or scalped. In the 2000 Olympics, for example, questions were raised regarding the distribution of tickets to sponsors and hospitality companies, while in the 2012 Summer Olympics, London began distributing free tickets to fill stadiums during events (Freid et. al., 2013). Predicting public interest is not as simple as measuring seats filled, and it is possible that increased output as a result of tickets sales is overstated. Timeframe: Impact of one-off vs repetitive events A number of impact drivers for the 2015 Rugby World Cup are short-term, which may help explain why the estimated benefits, in particular the induced benefits and assumptions regarding the multiplier effect, may be overstated. While regular, local events use existing infrastructure, require lower levels of investment, and have ongoing effects (Higham in Ritchie and Adair, 2004, p135), it is possible that larger events experience more temporary economic impacts, as the related investment is for a unique, rather than an ongoing, event. In Japan, for example, Saitama currently spends nearly $4 million per year maintaining a stadium built to host the 2002 Rugby World Cup, despite the venue now only drawing around 20,000 spectators for local sporting events (Leeds and Von Allmen, 2008). In the U.S.A., an abundance of abandoned and crumbling sports places exist, many less than 20 years old (Horrow and Swatek, 2011, p3). As noted above under The Tendency to Overestimate, New Zealand exp erienced increased economic activity during the Rugby World Cup in 2011; however the long term impact was not as significant (Statistics New Zealand, 2011). When measuring the economic impact in England, Arnold and Grice (2015, p11) refer to an induced economic impact of further investment on the back of a lasting legacy for the sport. In addition, infrastructure investment is listed as the second most influential direct economic impact. However, given the results in New Zealand, the U.S.A., Japan and Korea, and the nature of large, relatively infrequent sporting events, it is possible these benefits have been overstated, particularly in the long term. Conclusion In conclusion, it is likely the economic impact of the 2015 Rugby World Cup, as outlined by Arnold and Grice (2015), is a good overview. Increased economic activity leads to direct impacts including increased output and GDP driven by higher foreign and corporate investment, such as sports tourism and corporate branding respectively. Indirect impacts include high intermediary activity, including increases in the hospitality industry and spend on food and beverages, while induced benefits are as far reaching as social support driven by higher consumer income and the multiplier effect. While these impacts are positive, it is believed the magnitude of the results have been exaggerated, due to limitations including the tendency of host countries to overestimate the impact of sporting events, and the temporary effects of short-term events à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" even those as large as the Rugby World Cup. Further, due to the scope of an economic impact statement, many costs have gone unmen tioned, creating a disproportionate impression of gains and optimism. References Aubin, D., 2012, Ernsts revenues rise 6.7 percent on advisory growth, Reuters, Available through https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/01/us-ernst-revenues-idUSBRE8901GS20121001 Bergson, Z. 2015, Sports and Money: Economic Impact of the Rugby World Cup, National Centre for Business Journalism, Sept 14 2015, Available through https://businessjournalism.org/2015/09/sports-and-money-economic-impact-of-the-rugby-world-cup/ Arnold, P. and Grice, M., 2015, The Economic Impact of the Rugby World Cup 2015, Ernst Young, Available through https://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-rugby-world-cup-final-report/$FILE/EY-rugby-world-cup-final-report.pdf Freid, G., DeSchriver, T. and Mondello, M., 2013, Sports Finance, 3rd Ed., U.S.A.: Human Kinetics Harrow. R, and Swatek, K., 2011, Beyond the Scoreboard, U.S.A.: Human Kinetics Gibbons, T., 2014, English National Identity and Football Fan Culture, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Leeds, M. and Von Allmen, P., 2008, The Economics of Sports, 3rd ed., Boston: Pearson McConnell, C, Brue, S, Flynn, S. and Barbiero, T., 2010, Macroeconomics, 12th ed., Canada: McGraw Hill Ryerson Menary, S. 2015, Rugby to prove lucrative game as World Cup kicks off, The National: Business, Sept 17 2015, Available through https://www.thenational.ae/business/economy/rugby-to-prove-lucrative-game-as-world-cup-kicks-off Outspan Group Inc, The., 2009, The Economic Impacts of Cultural and Sport Tourism in Canada 2007, Amherst Island: The Outspan Group Inc. Ritchie, B. and Adair D. (eds)., 2004, Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues, U.K.: Channel View Publications Saayman, M. and Saayman, A., 2012, The Economic Impact of the Comrades Marathon, International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Vol3 (3), 05 Oct 2012, pp220-235 Statistics New Zealand, 2011, Impact of the Rugby World Cup in New Zealands macro-economic statistics, Statistics New Zealand, Available through https://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/economic_indicators/NationalAccounts/impact-of-rugby-world-cup.aspx Thanapathy, S. 2015, Off the Pitch: The winners and losers of the Rugby World cup, Australian Times: Sport, 25 Sept 2015, Available through https://www.australiantimes.co.uk/off-the-pitch-the-winners-and-losers-of-the-rugby-world-cup/ Tyrrell, J. and Johnston, R., 2006, The Economic Impact of Tourism, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 45, Aug 1 2006, Available through Deep Dyve at https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/sage/the-economic-impacts-of-tourism-a-special-issue-RCkCF7L8ja?articleList=%2F Wilson, B. 2015, Rugby World Cup a global game changer, says RFUs Ritchie, BBC News: Business, 24 Sept 2015, Available through https://www.bbc.com/news/business-34130763

How Do You Say Merry Christmas in Japanese

Whether youre visiting Japan for the holidays or just want to wish your friends the best of the season, its easy to say Merry Christmas in Japanese—the phrase is literally a transliteration or adaptation of the same phrase in English: Merii Kurisumasu. Once you master this greeting, its easy to learn how to address people on other holidays such as New Years  Day. You simply need to remember that some phrases cannot be translated literally word-for-word into English; instead, if you learn what the phrases mean, youll be able to quickly learn them. Christmas in Japan Christmas isnt a traditional holiday in Japan, which is a predominantly Buddhist and Shinto nation. But like other Western holidays and traditions, Christmas started becoming popular as a secular holiday in the decades after World War II. In Japan, the day is considered a romantic occasion for couples, similar to another Western holiday, Valentines Day. Christmas markets and holiday decorations spring up in major cities like Tokyo and Kyoto, and some Japanese exchange gifts. But these, too, are Western cultural imports. (So is the quirky Japanese habit of serving KFC on Christmas).   Saying Merii Kurisumasu (Merry Christmas) Because the holiday is not native to Japan, there is no Japanese phrase for Merry Christmas. Instead, people in Japan use the English phrase, pronounced with a Japanese inflection:  Merii Kurisumasu.  Written in katakana script, the form of writing Japanese use for all foreign words, the phrase looks like this:  Ã£Æ' ¡Ã£Æ' ªÃ£Æ' ¼Ã£â€š ¯Ã£Æ' ªÃ£â€š ¹Ã£Æ'žã‚ ¹ (Click the links to listen to the pronunciation.) Saying Happy New Year Unlike Christmas, observing the new year is a Japanese tradition. Japan has observed Jan. 1 as New Years Day since the late 1800s. Prior to that, the Japanese observed the new year at the end of January or beginning of February, much as the Chinese do based on the lunar calendar. In Japan, the holiday is known as  Ganjitsu.  It is the most important holiday of the year for the Japanese, with stores and businesses closing for two or three days in observance. To wish someone a happy new year in Japanese, you would say  akemashite  omdetou. The word omedetou (㠁Šã‚ Ã£  §Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€ ) literally means congrats, while akemashite  (明㠁‘㠁 ¾Ã£ â€"㠁 ¦is derived from a similar Japanese phrase, toshi ga akeru (a new year is dawning). What makes this phrase culturally distinct is the fact that it is only said on New Years Day itself. To wish someone a happy new year before or after the date itself, youd use the phrase  y oi otoshi o omukae kudasai è‰ ¯Ã£ â€žÃ£ Å Ã¥ ¹ ´Ã£â€šâ€™Ã£ Å Ã¨ ¿Å½Ã£ Ë†Ã£  Ã£   Ã£ â€¢Ã£ â€ž), which literally translates as Have a good year, but the phrase is understood to mean, I wish that you will have a good new year. Other Special Greetings The Japanese also use the word  omedetou  as a general way of expressing congratulations. For example, to wish someone a happy birthday, you would say tanjoubi omedetou  (è ªâ€¢Ã§â€Å¸Ã¦â€" ¥Ã£ Å Ã£â€š Ã£  §Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€ ). In more formal situations, Japanese use the phrase omedetou gozaimasu (㠁Šã‚ Ã£  §Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€ Ã£ â€Ã£ â€"㠁„㠁 ¾Ã£ â„¢). If you want to give your regards to a newly married couple, you would use the phrase go-kekkon omedetou gozaimasu (㠁”å â€™Ã¦ ¥ ­Ã£ Å Ã£â€š Ã£  §Ã£  ¨Ã£ â€ ), which means congratulations on your wedding.